Urban–Rural Inequality in Access to Safe Drinking Water in Indonesia: A Literature Review

Abstract

Access to safe drinking water remains a crucial public health and development issue in Indonesia, particularly as disparities between urban and rural areas persist. This article reviews the literature on inequality in drinking water access, focusing on causal factors, health and social impacts, and policy responses. Using a descriptive qualitative literature review approach, this study synthesizes previous findings related to water infrastructure, socioeconomic conditions, community participation, water quality, and public health outcomes. The review shows that urban communities generally have better access to piped water systems managed by Regional Drinking Water Companies (PDAM), whereas rural communities often rely on wells, springs, rivers, rainwater, or other traditional sources that are more vulnerable to contamination and seasonal variability. The main factors contributing to this inequality include uneven infrastructure development, limited technical and financial capacity, geographical constraints, low public awareness, and weak community involvement in water resource management. Limited access to safe drinking water increases the risk of waterborne diseases, worsens child health outcomes, and reinforces broader social and economic inequalities among rural households. The findings highlight the need for integrated and equitable policy responses, including strengthening PDAM performance, expanding community-based programs such as PAMSIMAS, improving water quality monitoring, enhancing public education, and promoting cross-sector collaboration. Locally responsive water governance is essential to achieve universal access to safe and affordable drinking water in line with Sustainable Development Goal 6.1.